Plato's Apology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Plato's Apology - Essay Example mary charges, namely, that he is spreading sacrilegious ideas in the marketplace, that he is associating with the Sophists, that he is corrupting the young, and that he does not honor the gods of Athens. Surprisingly, this man did not choose to flee the city in the common form of resisting arrest and instead chose to appear before the court and speak in his own defense. It is generally considered a poor choice to have the accused speak for himself, and it could be argued that Socrates didnt do himself any favors in attempting to present his case. However, after participating in the trial, I must admit I strongly disagree with my fellow jurors who have sentenced this man to death. Through his defense against that charges that have been pressed against him, Socrates has caused me to understand just why his actions are so vital to the strengthening and preservation of our fine community. The first charge brought against Socrates was that he was spreading sacrilegious ideas. This charge was levied against him as a result of his conversational habit of constantly challenging others ideas. When defending himself against this charge, Socrates admitted he did engage in this practice, but not as a means of spreading sacrilege. He instead claims that this idea has been taken out of context and twisted by old enemies of his. He said they tell "of one Socrates, a wise man, who speculated about the heaven above, and searched into the earth beneath, and made the worse appear the better cause† (Apology: 944). Socrates insisted he didnt intend to make people question the gods, but was instead working to understand the Oracles statement that he was the wisest man alive. As any same man might, Socrates had difficulty believing such a statement and he was forced to undertake a series of inquiries looking ‘into the heavens and earth" to learn why the Oracle might have sa id such a thing. Rather than an attempt to encourage sacrilege, Socrates said this was a personal journey of

Question is in the instruction box Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Question is in the instruction box - Essay Example Therefore, many of MNCs have developed internal programmes, guidance and management systems, which underpin their commitment to good corporate citizenship, good practices, good business conduct and employee conduct with an aim of achieving successful business performance in the global competitive market. These guidelines employed by MNCs aims to promote the positive values and contributions such as economic, environmental and social advancement in an economy, as well as, enabling companies to achieve appropriate business conduct for efficient business operations. This has been brought forth by the numerous technological as well as operational development that have been realized in the field making the organizations more competitive in a bid to maintain a competitive edge. This research seeks to evaluate the Value and Binding Effect of Internal Codes of Conduct by Multinational Enterprises. ... Corporate codes of conducts have been established and they exist in many MNCs in order to guide the company on the way they operate; thus enabling them to achieve successful business performance in the global competitive market2.The recent study that was carried out by the OECD concluded that most MNCs codes of conduct tend to be highly specific and they deal with the peculiarities of a certain project, location or specific company3. There are different codes of conducts designed to deal with different issues such as industry-specific corporate codes and these guidelines deals with environment; thus labor issues tend to be the most common issues which is being focused under this code of conduct. For instance, many multinational companies in U.S.A such as footwear companies, hardware companies, personal beauty care companies and electronic companies have adopted corporate code of conduct in order to enable them perform their business activities successfully. Multinational companies su ch as MacDonald stores generally support the idea of codes of conduct that standardize rules of corporate behaviors across the industries because it contributes to successful business performance across the globe. Many multinational companies have developed guidelines that help them in effective business operations. OECD countries have established deliberate standards and principles that are accountable for efficient business performance in diverse key areas including industrial relation, workforce, human rights and environmental areas4. The motivation behind adopting these guidelines can be quite complex but MacDonald Inch adopts codes of conduct due to the need of carrying out effective business practices. This is because the

Monetary Policy and the Behavior of the MPC Essay

Monetary Policy and the Behavior of the MPC - Essay Example The present policy mandate of the Bank of England, the UK’s central bank is dictated by the twin economic objectives of maintaining a high level of employment or low involuntary employment with promoting a high level of production of goods and services with rapid growth. Meanwhile, the latest available Inflation Report dated February 2011 shows that the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rose between 4 to 5 percent as against a target inflation rate of 2 percent. The main reasons for this were the increase in VAT since December 2010, an unprecedented rise of 15 percent in energy prices and 20 percent in food prices, and a fall of 25 percent in the value of UK Sterling. Meanwhile, unemployment remains at 8 percent and even the unexpected cold wave we have seen last winter has negatively affected productivity and the rate of output in the UK. The most realistic estimates by the Bank of England are that inflation will continue to remain at the 4 percent level till the end of 2011 and the n come back to the target of 2 percent being more realistic in the long run. In the process it is expected that exports will grow to the level that it supports monetary policy and exchange rates, bringing the economy back on track and at least out of the present crisis, which by the Governor of the Bank of England’s own admission is the worst we have faced since the Great Depression of the 1930s. (BOE, Q&A). The Importance of Central Bank Credibility The central bank of any nation has a key role in setting and controlling the money supply and controlling the rate of inflation in the country (Rosen,2004). The role of Mervyn King, the Governor of the Bank of England is just that and he does it with the help of a nine member Monetary Policy Committee. Of course, the estimates made by the MPC are hardly ever on target explicitly, but at least they give a sense of direction in which the economy is going. The inflation rate is not known to change rapidly- there is a lag between pri ce and output changes and the inflation rate, but at least we have an indication of whether it is going to be higher or lower than previously. What is worrying at present is how to stimulate the economy without raising the rate of inflation. At the same time, the rate of inflation is largely in control in Germany and USA, to name two of the UK’s best trading partners. It has been fortunate for them that their exchange rates have stabilized and had not been so adversely affected as in the UK. The Bank of England and the MPC wait and evaluate the events in the economy before making a decision on increase in Bank Rates, for example. They have to wait for shocks to be absorbed by the economy and allow for these in their estimates (McConnell & Brue, 2005). Being consistently wrong and off the target for key estimates

Should Same Sex Marriage Be Legalized Essay Example for Free

Should Same Sex Marriage Be Legalized Essay Half of Americans say that homosexuality is something that can be changed or a choice, while the other half say that homosexuality is not a choice but something that they are born with and cannot change. So what is homosexuality, exactly? It is the attraction or behaviors, sexual or otherwise, between members of the same sex or gender (Random House, Inc. 2013). The question at hand is should the parties in these types of relationships be allowed to marry and carry the same rights as that of a heterosexual couple? This is something that has been discussed and debated between many groups for a long time and still continues to be so. The answer is simple. Marriage should be the right of the individual, regardless of gender or sexual orientation. This country is founded on exactly this point. The Constitution of the United States of America says everyone should have equal rights. Freedom to marry is no different than freedom of religion. If an individual can choose who to worship and believe in, then that individual should be able to choose who to love and spend their life with. In 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that in the case of Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur, freedom of personal choice in matters of marriage and family life is one of the liberties protected by the Due Process Clause (ProCon.org 2013)†. Not legalizing same sex marriage only leads people to believe that it is acceptable to discriminate against those who lead this life style. Because of this, laws regarding same sex marriage need to evolve with the times. When laws were created against same sex marriage, it was also not accepted to marry interracially. Since this time these laws have been revised and have allowed for many happy, healthy homes. This goes to show that if laws are not changed to fit the times, the country can never grow. This growth can provide great opportunities in many different ways. Same Sex Marriage is also beneficial to both the same sex partners and the Government. Federal benefits would be available to a legally married same sex couple. These benefits would include, Social Security Benefits, Tax Benefits, as well Veterans and Military Benefits. For the same sex couple, this would mean a better quality of life and more security later in life. They would also qualify for Federal Employment Benefits and Immigration. Many people feel that a same sex couple should not have these rights because they believe it will cost the government more money and damage the economy further. However, these benefits would allow the same sex couple to provide a more stable life for their families. As for the government is concerned, the legally married same sex couple would also be liable for the same Federal fees and expenses as a â€Å"traditional† married couple. They would have to file and pay for marriage licenses. In addition, the legally married couple would be required to file as married on their Federal Taxes. Both of these things can potential boost the economy. Therefore, the government would actually benefit from the legalization as opposed to being damaged. The Comptroller for New York City found that over a period of three years, just legalizing gay marriage would bring approximately $142 million to the city’s economy and approximately $184 million to the state’s economy (William C. Thompson, Jr., Love Counts: The Economic Benefits of Marriage Equality for New York 2007). These benefits have already been implemented in many parts of the world and have proven to be beneficial to both parties. There are currently eighteen nations that have implemented laws for same sex marriage to be allowed, in either the entire area or at least certain jurisdictions. These countries include Argentina (2010), Denmark (2012), The Netherlands (2000), South Africa (2006), Belgium (2003), England/Wales (2013), New Zealand (2013), Spain (2005), Brazil (2013), France (2013), Norway (2009), Sweden (2009), Canada (2005), Iceland (2010), Portugal (2010), Uruguay (2013), Mexico (2009), and The United States (2003) (Senior Researcher David Masci, Research Analyst Elizabeth Sciupac and Assistant Editor Michael Lipka 2013). Of these eighteen nations the only two restricted to certain jurisdictions The United States and Mexico. In The United States same sex has been legalized in thirteen states. These include Massachusetts (May 17, 2004), Connecticut (Nov. 12, 2008), Iowa (Apr. 24. 2009), Vermont (Sep. 1, 2009), New Hampshire (Jan. 1, 2010), New York (June 24, 2011), Washington (Dec. 9, 2012), Maine (Dec. 29, 2012), Maryland (Jan. 1, 2013), California (June 28, 2013), Delaware (July 1, 2013), Rhode Island (Aug. 1, 2013), and Minnesota (Aug. 1, 2013) (Christian Broadcasting Network, Americans Question Who Makes a Family, 2010). In 2008, Massachusetts, the first state in the country to legalize same sex marriage, had the lowest divorce rate in the country. This has been the case with many other states as well, showing that gay marriage bans correspond with higher divorce rates (Nate Silver, Divorce Rates Higher in States with Gay Marriage Bans, 2010). It has been shown that lower divorce rates provide for more stable homes. More stable living environments can provide a plethora of opportunities to people that not have otherwise been given them. Among these opportunities lies the known fact that a same sex couple who is legally married would have an easier time adopting a child(ren) than a non-married couple. The reason for this is because, the adoption process is believed to be easier when there is a loving two parent household. It has been shown that when considering adoption, a married couple will be much more likely to be approved than an individual because it is more likely that they would be able to best provide for the child and give them the necessary attention. Single parents are very unlikely to be allowed to adopt unless they have extensive means of support. Many people believe that a child should not be raised in a home with parents of the same sex because it would not be healthy for the child’s growth and development. However, it has been shown that children raised in same sex homes have been proven to thrive just as well as those raised in heterosexual homes. In this country alone there are 100,000 children waiting for adoption (James G. Pawelski 2006). More stable homes would provide to create more productive members of society. Studies conducted in 2010 concluded that children raised by two mothers scored higher than those of heterosexual parents in multiple areas, including social and academic competence (Rachel H. Farr, Stephen L. Forsell, and Charlotte J. Patterson, Parenting and Child Development in Adoptive Families: Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter?, Applied Developmental Science 2010). In addition, these children were shown to have fewer social problems. Children of gay fathers in this study were to be just as well-adjusted as those adopted by heterosexual parents† (Rachel H. Farr, Stephen L. Forsell, and Charlotte J. Patterson, Parenting and Child Development in Adoptive Families: Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter?, Applied Developmental Science 2010). Allowing more adoptions would also cut down on the need to place unwanted and abused children into the Foster System. In doing this, not only does the same sex married couple get the pleasure of becoming parents, and the children get the chance of a happy normal life, but the government will again benefit by no longer needing to provide the support for these children, as well as providing more foster homes for those children with the possibility of reunification with their families, which there is a great shortage of. All of this information shows that whether or not sexual orientation is a choice or something that one is simply born with is really irrelevant. The fact still remains that everyone should have equal rights, regardless of their race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. It is unconstitutional to deny these rights to anyone based on these discriminating factors, as the Constitution is supportive of equality for all. In the past similar discrimination was imposed upon inter-racial marriages, which has since been altered. By changing those laws and providing balance between the races, the country has grown in ways that could only have been imagined. The same possibilities are true for the legalizations of same sex marriage. Unless something is given the chance, it will never be known what could possibly come from it, and it could quite possibly improve the overall quality of life. This is true not just for the parties directly affected, but for those around them as well. This has already been shown through the positive things that have come from the legalization of same sex marriage in many areas around the world. Regardless of the fears of many that legalizing same sex marriage could compromise the functions of society, in the areas where it is already legal, society is still functioning just as well if not better than before the legalization. References Pew research religion and public life project. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.pewforum.org/search/gay+marriage/?site=pewforum Procon.org. (2013). Retrieved from http://gaymarriage.procon.org/ Waters, H. J. (2013). Proquest. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/1372302648?accountid=458 Cheiner, E. (2013). The gay and lesbian review. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/1322735038?accountid=458 Pearce, C. (2012). Gay marriage. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/1223795294?accountid=458

Endosymbiotic Theory in Eukaryotic Cells

Endosymbiotic Theory in Eukaryotic Cells Endosymbiotic theory- the modern, or organelle- containing eukaryotic cell evolved in steps through the stable incorporation of chemoorganotrophic and phototrophic symbionts from the domain Bacteria. The hypothesis of endosymbiosis is at present the most widely accepted theory on the evolution of the eukaryotic cell. This current theory states that the mitochondria and chloroplasts contained within the eukaryotic cell, are there due to the integration of free living bacteria which implement aerobic metabolism, chemoorganotrophic bacteria, and bacteria which implement oxygenic photosynthesis, cyanobacteria. It is thought that symbiosis, in addition to natural selection and mutations, is also a driving force in the evolution of the modern or organelle containing eukaryotic cell. This essay will describe in detail the endosymbiotic theory and its features, discuss the evidence which supports it and then discuss its major opposing theories, the hydrogen hypothesis and the syntrophy hypothesis. Short history of the endosymbiotic theory Many biologists have had a role in what is now known as the endosymbiotic theory. Firstly in 1883, Andreas Schimper proposed that particular organelles evolved from the symbiotic union of two different organisms, (this was while he was studying chloroplast division within green plants and observed a similarity between chloroplasts and free living cyanobacteria.), (Vargas-Parada, 2010). In 1905, Konstantin Merezhkovski devised the term, symbiogenesis , due to his work on lichens leading him to speculate that more complex cells evolved from a symbiotic relationship between less complex ones (2006). Then in the 1920s, Ivan Wallin suggested that organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts began as symbiotic bacteria and that species creation could have occurred through endosymbiosis. Finally, much later in 1967 Lynn Margulis collected various microbiological observations which supported the hypothesis of endosymbiosis. Evolution of the eukaryotic cell The current evidence for the evolution of eukaryotic cells suggests that around 4 billion years ago ancestors of Bacteria and Archea arose. It is thought that in bacteria, around 3.2 billion years ago, phototrophy occurred, with the common ancestor of many bacteria thought to be an anaerobic phototroph. Then around 2.7 billion years ago oxygen-generating cyanobacteria developed, which over time caused an increase in the atmospheric oxygen levels. The atmosphere slowly changed from anoxic to oxic due to this rise in oxygen levels. At some point during this period eukaryotic microorganisms containing organelles evolved and the oxic environment drove their evolution. Main distinguishable features of present day eukaryotes from prokaryotes In many prokaryotic cells their DNA is arranged into a single loop, is circular and unlike eukaryotes, it is not associated with histones and is therefore termed naked. Prokaryotic cells reproduce by the process of binary fission, are mainly unicellular organisms and are usually smaller than eukaryotic cells. In the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell, the DNA is organised into chromosomes, which is surrounded by a membrane. Eukaryotic cells reproduce by the means of mitosis and meiosis, are usually larger than prokaryotic cells and are usually complex and multicellular. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane bound organelles, with the most noteworthy being the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The major organelles involved in the endosymbiotic theory The endosymbiotic theory refers to the organelles mitochondria and plastids, (plastids refer to chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and gerontoplasts, to name a few), however mainly focuses on chloroplasts. The major reason for these two organelles being involved in the endosymbiotic theory is because they both contain a small genome. Moreover, both of these organelles contain the operating systems required for cellular functions such as protein synthesis, for example ribosomes and transfer RNA, and also the cellular constituents needed for translation. Mitochondria Mitochondria are the site of respiration and oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotic cells. They are membrane bound organelles, with each cell containing thousands of them. Mitochondria show variations in their morphology, and can be rod-shaped or spherical. They are surrounded by two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The outer membrane is made up of protein and lipid and contains channels which allow the diffusion of ions and small organic molecules. The inner membrane is less permeable and is invaginated to form cristae. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the inner membrane; with cristae allowing maximum surface area for ATP synthase molecules, which are involved in the synthesis of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), the final step of oxidative phosphorylation. It is for this reason that they are considered to be the power generators of the cell. Mitochondria possess their own DNA which is independent of the cells chromosomal DNA. The mitochondrial genome mainly encodes proteins needed for oxidative phosphorylation and also encodes ribosomal RNAs, (rRNAs), transfer RNAs, (tRNAs) and proteins necessary for protein synthesis. Mitochondria use simplified genetic codes, which seem to have arisen from selection pressure for smaller genomes (Madigan, 2009 p. 351). Even though mitochondria possess their own genome they still require proteins encoded by nuclear genes. Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles found in phototrophic eukaryotic cells. These cells are found in plants algae and some protists. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which is the photosynthetic pigment present within them. Chloroplasts are usually larger than bacterial cells and can differ in size and shape. Chloroplasts again like mitochondria consist of two membranes and inner membrane and an outer membrane. Their outer membrane is permeable and the inner membrane is less permeable. The inner membrane surrounds the stroma, which houses the photosynthetic pigment, chlorophyll and other cellular components needed for the process of photosynthesis in thylakoids. Thylakoids stacked into the structural units, grana. The thylakoid membrane is not permeable to ions and other metabolites, due to the light reactions of photosynthesis needing the proton motive force which is necessary for the synthesis and release of ATP. The stroma of the chloroplast holds large amounts of the enzyme RubisCO, (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylate), which catalyses the Calvin cycle or the dark reactions of photosynthesis. The Calvin cycle converts COà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ into various organic compounds like glucose which are needed by cells. Chloroplasts also contain their own DNA, which is also independent of the cells chromosomal DNA. The identified chloroplast genomes are all circular DNA molecules, with each chloroplast containing several matching copies of the genome (Madigan, 2009 p. 350). Genes contained within the chloroplast encode for proteins required for photosynthesis and autotrophy to occur and also rRNA and tRNA used for the processes of transcription and translation. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have some proteins, which are encoded by nuclear genes and not just by the chloroplast genome. Introduction to the endosymbiotic theory The primary endosymbiotic theory implies that the mitochondrial ancestor was a free living facultatively aerobic alphaproteobacterium, attained by another cell and therefore giving rise to a eukaryotic cell. (Madigan, 2009 p. 520) A species of cyanobacterium is thought to be the ancestor of chloroplasts, obtained by a heterotrophic eukaryote, after eukaryotic cells had appeared around 1.5 billion years ago (Madigan, 2009 p. 520) and was obtained as an internal symbiont (Bruce Alberts, 2002). Secondary endosymbiosis refers to the event where several non-phototrophic organisms attained chloroplasts, after the primary endosymbiosis event is said to have occurred. Secondary endosymbiosis is said to have been an important factor in the evolution of eukaryotes, bringing the modern diversity of life into being (Macfadden, 2001). Features of and molecular evidence for the primary endosymbiotic theory The main point of the primary endosymbiotic theory, and which gives it its credibility, was that both mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain DNA, with rRNA, tRNA and proteins involved and needed for the respiratory chain in mitochondria and proteins needed for photosynthesis in chloroplasts, being encoded by these small genomes within mitochondria and chloroplasts. Non-phototrophic eukaryotic cells are genetic chimeras containing DNA from two different sources, the endosymbiont, which is the mitochondria, and the host cell nucleus (Madigan, 2009 p. 520). Eukaryotes which are phototrophic, for example algae and plants, have DNA from two endosymbionts, the mitochondira and the chloroplasts as well as the nuclear DNA. The majority of mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA is similar to bacterial DNA in its shape, which is circular and size. The second feature of primary endosymbiosis is that genes originating from bacteria are found in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell. This has been proven by sequencing genomes, which have shown that nuclear genes encode properties unique to mitochondria and chloroplasts, (and also which closely resemble genes of bacteria), showing that during the evolution of the eukaryotic cell these genes where transferred to the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell, from the bacterial endosymbionts, during the development of the organelle from the engulfed cell (Madigan, 2009 p. 521). The third feature of primary endosymbiosis is that the mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own ribosomes. Ribosomes are present in eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells, with eukaryotic cells possessing the larger form, 80S, and prokaryotic cells containing the smaller, 70S, ribosomes. The mitochondria and chloroplast contain these 70S ribosomes. The fourth feature is antibiotic specificity. Mitochondria and chloroplast are sensitive to antibiotics which kill bacteria or are bacterial inhibitors. Some for example streptomycin do this by specifically interfering with the functions of the 70S ribosomes, which occurs in the same way in mitochondria and chloroplasts (Madigan, 2009 p. 521). Rifampicin is an antibiotic which in bacteria affects the RNA polymerase. It does not have this effect on eukaryotic RNA polymerase however does inhibit mitochondrial RNA polymerase. The fifth and final feature of primary endosymbiosis is that of molecular phylogeny. Phylogenetic studies comparing organelles and rRNA support the theory of mitochondria and chloroplasts deriving from bacteria. There is also other evidence in addition to what is mentioned above. Both mitochondria and chloroplast are surrounded by two membranes. It is though that the inner membrane is the original membrane which contained the prokaryotic cell and the outer membrane results from the process of endocytosis when the bacteria were taken into the eukaryotic cell. Protein synthesis in the endosymbionts begins with N- formyl methionine, the same amino acid that initiates protein synthesis in bacteria whilst in eukaryotic cells protein synthesis is initiated by methionine. Also the thylakoid membrane and the protein complexes which it contains are like those that can be found in cyanobacteria (Pyke p. 5) , and chloroplasts can divide in a way which is similar to the process of binary fission which is carried out by bacteria. This evidence all suggests that the host cell which obtained the mitochondrion by phagocytosis was an anaerobic eukaryotic cell, (which already contained a nucleus) and that the mitochondrial endosymbiont was an obligate anaerobe (Mentel, 2010). This event was later followed by the endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium, allowing the eukaryotic cell to become photosynthetic. In this way the host eukaryotic cell attained permanent organelles which are suited to energy production. It was also mutually beneficial for the symbionts which obtained a constant and accommodating environment for their growth. Secondary endosymbiosis The primary endosymbiosis event in the common ancestor plants and in green and red algae is said to have created the modern day chloroplast. The secondary symbiotic event refers to non-phototrophic eukaryotes obtaining chloroplasts by the endocytosis of a green or red algal cell and consequently becoming phototrophic. It is thought that secondary and even further endosymbiosies lead to the diversification of eukaryotes. Problems with the endosymbiotic theory To support the endosymbiotic theory in the 1980s, Tom Cavalier-Smith proposed that certain single-celled eukaryotes which are at present still living, bear a resemblance to earlier eukaryotes, were primitively amitochondriate (Lane, 2005 p. 42),(basically eukaryotes without any mitochondria), and Cavalier-Smith named them archezoa. (He later abandoned this theory in 2002, (Cavalier-Smith, 2002)) These cells derived their energy via fermentation and prefer environments with little oxygen and were thought to be the bridge between early eukaryotic cells (as archezoa contain a nucleus) and prokaryotic cells, which would have supported the theory of a bacterial cell being phagocytised, but not digested, leading to the possession of a mitochondria in the early eukaryotic cell. It was then thought that as oxygen levels on earth started to rise, the mitochondria too, began to evolve, due to aerobic respiration being more resourceful than anaerobic respiration, which again supported that the phagocytosis of this bacterial cell was for the purpose of a more efficient way of generating energy. In March 2000, Jan and Siv Andersson proposed the Ox-Tox hypothesis to explain that aerobic respiration was the selective pressure leading to the gain of the mitochondria, originally selected for the removal of oxygen by the host cell (Andersson, 2000). This was due to research showing that the genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii had a strong phylogenetic relationship with mitochondrial proteins (Andersson, 2000). However in the late 1990s these hypotheses were question due to the appearance of contradictive evidence. The genomes of archezoa were sequenced and genes were found which showed that the ancestors of archezoa once had mitochondria, even though there was no physical indication of them in the cell. Some archezoa such as Giardia were found to have mitochondria but in the form of mitosomes, which still carried out mitochondrial processes (Lane, 2005 p. 47) again implying that these eukaryotes once contained mitochondria within their cells. It was then suggested that the original host in the eukaryotic merger was a methanogen, due to the structure of eukaryotic and methanogenic histones and the 3D conformation of the DNA associated with the histones being closely related (Lane, 2005 p. 48). Other problems with the endosymbiotic theory are that if a bacterium was phagocytised by a eukaryotic cell, it would definitely have been digested and neither mitochondria nor chloroplasts are able to survive independently outside of the eukaryotic cell. Chloroplasts arent the main focus when disproving the endosymbiotic theory as its thought that when the phagocytosis of a phototrophic symbiont occurred, the host cell already contained mitochondria. The alternative theories to the mainstream endosymbiotic theory The hydrogen hypothesis In 1998, William Martin and Miklà ³s Mà ¼ller proposed the hydrogen hypothesis. Unlike other hypotheses which suggested that the formation of eukaryotic cell was due to the rising oxygen levels, this hypothesis suggests that instead it was to do with hydrogen. They state that Eukaryotes are suggested to have arisen through symbiotic association of an anaerobic, strictly hydrogen dependent, strictly autotrophic archaebacterium (the host) with a eubacterium (the symbiont) that was able to respire, but generated molecular hydrogen as a waste product of anaerobic heterotrophic metabolism. (Mà ¼ller, 1998). The hydrogen hypothesis is based on hydrogenosomes which are anaerobic mitochondria, that produce ATP and with their waste products including hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide and which also are able to function in low oxygen environments. Martin and Mà ¼ller suggested that there was a methanogenic ancestry of the host (Mà ¼ller, 1998) due to methanogens needed the very products (hy drogen and carbon dioxide), which are released by hydrogenosomes and because hydrogenosomes survive in the same environment as methanogens. Due to the intimate association between the methanogen and the bacterium, the symbiosis becomes closer, due to the methanogen needing the products of respiration produced by the bacteria and it is gradually engulfed by the methanogen. By the process of lateral gene transfer from bacterium to methanogen, the methanogen is now able to carry out aerobic and anaerobic respiration (Lane, 2005). There are known examples today of bacteria which live as endosymbionts within other prokaryotes (Mentel, 2010), which again helps support this hypothesis. Another point which gives the hydrogen hypothesis credibility is that all anaerobic and aerobic mitochondria all originated from a facultatively anaerobic ancestral state (Mentel, 2010). Also according to the hydrogen hypothesis, the host cell was not required to have possessed a nucleus (Mà ¼ller, 1998). The formation of the nucleus is explained by genes for the synthesis of lipids being transferred to the host chromosome from the symbiont leading to the host synthesising these bacterial lipids and then resulting in the formation of the endoplasmic reticulum, an internal membrane system and origination of a eukaryotic nucleus (Madigan, 2009 p. 376). The effects of the hydrogen hypothesis for chloroplasts have not been considered in much depth (Allen, 2003). The syntrophy hypothesis This hypothesis was proposed by Purificacià ³n Là ³pez-Garcà ­a and David Moreira in 1999. This hypothesis is based on similar metabolic considerations as the hydrogen hypothesis proposed by Martin and Mà ¼ller (Moreira, 1999). There are some similarities between the two hypotheses. Firstly, they both maintain that the metabolic nature if the original symbiotic event involved both hydrogen and syntrophy, secondly that the hydrogen dependent autotrophic archeon must have been a methanogen (Moreira, 1999) and finally that the mosaic nature of the eukaryotic genome can be explained by lateral gene transfer and replacement over a long symbiotic life (Moreira, 1999). The difference between these hypotheses is that the syntrophy hypothesis states that the organisms involved were ÃŽÂ ´- proteobacteria, which are ancestral sulphate reducing myxobacteria, and methanogenic archaea (Moreira, 1999). The hydrogen hypothesis states that an ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacteria began the symbiosis, wherea s in the syntrophy proposal it is thought that two eubacterial types were involve, a sulphate reducing ÃŽÂ ´- proteobacteria, (which produced hydrogen for fermentation), and also an ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacterial methanotroph became symbionts and used the methane which was generated by the methanogen to produce C0à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡. Both of these hypotheses agree that the ancestral mitochondria were of anaerobic origin (Moreira, 1999). The chimeric nature of the eukaryotic cell The hypotheses mentioned above, suggest that the modern eukaryotic cell is a chimera, which is a cell that is made up of features from both Bacteria and Archaea (Madigan, 2009 p. 376). Eukaryotes contain the same sort of lipids which are found in Bacteria and the tools they contain for transcription and translation are like those found in Archaea (Madigan, 2009 p. 376). The chimeric nature of nuclear genomes can be partially explained by the endosymbiont hypothesis of mitochondria (Hua). At some stage in eukaryogenesis, cellular and genomic combination of the two different organisms (which vary for the hydrogen and syntrophy hypothesis) happened with gene transfer from bacteria to archaea and then subsequent replacement. The bacterial genome is then thought to have condensed down and could have also dematerialised as the cell underwent evolution, (as horizontal gene transfer, which includes the introduction and loss of genes, is often seen in symbionts (Madigan, 2009 p. 377)). The de veloping eukaryotic cell must have inherited some of the archaeal-DNA processing systems, whereas the cellular metabolism systems are thought to have come from bacterial organotrophy (Hua). During its evolution the modern day eukaryotic cell has become ever more complicated and has led to the appearance of complex, multicellular life forms which are powered by mitochondria and chloroplasts in phototrophic eukaryotic cells. The progression of its evolution and how all the individual compartments of the cell occurred is expected to have taken an extensive amount of time. Variation and natural selection evidently occurred, perfecting the cell by the removal of mechanisms and cellular structures which were deemed useless, leading to biological diversity. It is still undetermined which of these hypotheses mentioned accurately describe the origin of eukaryotes and is thought that the further sequencing of genomes and phylogenetic analyses of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes will provide an improved elucidation of the origin and diversity of eukaryotes.

Bilingual Education In Miami :: essays research papers

While California debates whether to stop teaching school children in two languages, the school system in Miami, Florida is expanding bilingual education. This city at the crossroads of the Americas is expanding bilingual education under the argument that students will need to speak, read and write in English and Spanish when they reach the business world. The decision to do this almost seems natural for a metropolis where the top-rated television stations broadcast in Spanish, the top-ranked newspaper publishes a separate Spanish daily edition, many top civic leaders speak effortless Spanish and Latinos have become the majority. Educators in Miami, home to the first bilingual public school in the modern era, are baffled by the cultural and political firefight over bilingual education in California.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nowhere is the controversy more intense than in California. On June 2, 1998 there was a vote on an anti-bilingual education initiative, Proposition 227. This proposition would end most bilingual programs in California and give students with limited English skills about one year of special English classes before placing them in the mainstream. To even have something like this on the Ballot in California seems very odd. California has more students with limited English skills than any other state. California has approximately 1.4 million students with limited English and about 30% of them are in formal bilingual programs, including some two-way programs. The most common approach in California is â€Å"transitional† bilingual education, in which students often spend more time being taught in their native language than in English for their first school years. Due to the large population of Spanish speakers in California I would think that educators would want t o mock Miami’s style of teaching both English and Spanish.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Miami educators view it differently than they do in California. They look at bilingual education as a business opportunity for students. Miami’s trades with Latin America amount to billions of dollars a year. Top business leaders say that Miami can not afford to do with out bilingual education. James F. Partridge, chief of Latin American and Caribbean operations for Visa International said, â€Å"I don’t give a hoot about the political aspects of it. To me, that’s a lot of garbage. I am interested in the financial well being of this community. We need bilingual people to survive.† Partridge is so concerned about the issue that his office gives remedial lessons in Spanish and Portuguese to dozens of employees whose weak bilingual skills don’t allow them to communicate with clients in those languages.

Pathos for the Native American Indian Essay

â€Å"Brother, our seats were once large, and yours were very small; you have now become a great people, and we have scarcely a place left to spread our blankets; you have got our country, but are not satisfied; you want to force you religion upon us† (177) Long before the white man appeared, Native Americans owned the great and vast lands, relying on and praising the Great Spirit for sun, rain, and life. Upon crossing the seas, the white man was welcomed and befriended. As the white men grew in numbers, so did their appetite for land and control. The Caucasians brought contention, confusion, distrust, and problems. As though all of this were not enough, they also brought a new, â€Å"superior† religion. Red Jacket, an eloquent chiefly orator, finally spoke up for the Native population in his Speech of Red Jacket, the Seneca Chief to a Missionary. Red Jacket effectively appeals to pathos using comparison, sufficiency, and tone to convince white missionaries that Native Americans do not wish to worship as the white man, to destroy his religion, or to take it from him; but only to enjoy their own. Red Jacket relies on pathos to convince the white missionaries that the Native’s religion must be saved and guarded. Where there was no common ground between the Caucasians and the Indians, Red Jacket chose to relate to his audience through universal human emotions. His speech allows the listener or reader to visualize the injustices felt by a nation of people who had their homelands stolen from them. To convey the importance of saving their religion, Red Jacket compares the Indian’s religion and the Caucasian’s religion. Instead of focusing merely on the Indian’s noncompliance to the white man’s religion; he braces his arguments in describing his own religion. The contrast between the two beliefs is as distinct as the contrast between their skins. Red Jacket opens his speech saying, â€Å"Friend and Brother, it was the will of the Great Spirit that we should meet together this day† (176). He continues  describing the Great Spirit as a great being with immense love for his red children. It is the Great Spirit that brings the sun up each morning and down each night; it is the Great Spirit who created the buffalo, deer, and all other animals; it is the Great Spirit that taught them to hold a great reverence for life and earth. From this description of the Great Spirit, several themes can be seen that coincide between the Indian’s beliefs and their actions. The Native’s compassionate, respectful, and thankful nature correlates with their humble belief in the Great Spirit. Compare that to the Caucasian’s greedy, proud, ethnocentric nature. These traits are contradictory between the their beliefs and actions. By contrasting, Red Jacket shows that the white man’s presentation of Christianity was h ypocritical in that their words conflict with their actions. Red Jacket’s most powerful comparison of the two cultures’ religion is found in his conclusion: â€Å"Brother, if your white men murdered the son of the Great Spirit, we Indians had nothing to do with it, and it is none of our affair. If he had come among us we would not have killed him; we would have treated him well, you must make amends for that crime yourselves† (178). In this inference to the crucifixion, Red Jacket makes a subtle but distinct statement about the difference between the Caucasians and the Indian. In essence, he is saying that only the white man is capable of murdering their own savior; an accusation that undoubtedly solicited a strong reaction. To raise the awareness of the grievous deeds done to the Indians by the Caucasians, Red Jacket uses sufficient evidence of the white man’s dealings with the Natives to exemplify the lies told by the Caucasians to the Indian. He specifically describes the ways in which the white man has taken advantage of the Indians trust to invoke sympathy from the reader. First, Red Jacket effectively leads into his injuries from the white man by illustrating the Indian’s initial hospitality to the Caucasians. Speaking of the Caucasian’s arrival, Red Jacket states: â€Å"They found tribes, and not enemies; they sat down among us. We did not fear them; we took them to be friends; they called us brothers; we believed them† (177). But this first encounter between red and white skin would later be known as an evil day. In  Red Jacket’s words: â€Å"We gave them corn and meat; they gave us poison in return† (177). He tells how the Indians were deceived, giving all they had to the white newcomers who took and took until the Indians had nothing left. The white men crowded them out, claimed their lands, brought with them liquor, contention, and confusion. All of the evidence Red Jacket includes sufficiently shows the reader how the Caucasian stripped the Indian’s of everything, even their culture and religion. Use of such evidence entices the reader’s empathy. Red Jacket is selective in the tone of his text to ensure that he speaks to the white man in equality with respect. Despite the Caucasian’s tendency to talk down to the Native’s, Red Jacket speaks as though on the same level. This equality is apparent throughout the entire text as Red Jacket consistently addresses the white man as â€Å"Brother†. As he was a victim, one would assume that Red Jacket’s reply would be livid, however, he delivers his speech in a very patient, respectful, and firm tone. In doing so, Red Jacket demonstrates an awareness of his audience. He surely knew that speaking words of hostility would only solicit an equal and opposite reaction that would have no chance of fostering change. Never once does he criticize or try to press his own beliefs on the Caucasians; he simply declines to accept Christianity. â€Å"Brother, the Great Spirit has made us all; but he has made a great difference between his white and red children; he has given us a different complexion, and different customs. Since he has made so great a difference between us in other things, why may we not conclude that he has given us a different religion according to our understanding; the Great Spirit does right; he knows what is best for his children; we are satisfied† (178). This exemplifies Red Jacket’s tone in his speech. A level of tolerance can be seen in this quote, which has a pacifying affect on the reader. His firm and civil tone makes his point successfully. Whether or not Red Jacket’s oratory caused much change in the Caucasian’s dealings with the Native Americans, it made a strong statement concerning the Indian’s stance on religious values. His speech is persuasive, considerably due to his ability to play on the pathos of the listener or  reader. In contrasting religions through beliefs and actions, providing sufficient, convincing, and supporting evidence, and speaking in a tone appropriate to his audience; Red Jacket makes it very clear why the Indian’s have no desire to adapt the white man’s religion. Through pathos, he draws the reader’s sentiments to see their case. â€Å"We also have a religion which was given to our forefathers, and has been handed down to us their children. We worship that way. It teaches us to be thankful for all the favours we receive; to love each other, and to be united† (178). In Speech of Red Jacket, the Seneca Chief to a Missionary, it becomes obvious t hat religion is a deep rooted part of Native American culture that should be protected at all costs.